Crucifixion was invented by the Persians, according to Herodotus, but perfected by the Romans. It became a symbol of power and fear for the Empire. This punishment was primarily for slaves, pirates, rebels and enemies of the state. Cicero said it was "the most cruel and disgusting penalty", and Josephus "the most wretched of deaths." How did the cross, an instrument of torture and disgraceful death, become a symbol of love and beauty, crowning steeples, gracing the necks of billions? This is how.